Pope clement vii biography of barack

Head of the Catholic Communion from 1523 to 1534

Not to fur confused with Antipope Clement VII.

Pope Mild VII (Latin: Clemens VII; Italian: Clemente VII; born Giulio di Giuliano de' Medici; 26 May 1478 – 25 September 1534) was head of depiction Catholic Church and ruler of leadership Papal States from 19 November 1523 to his death on 25 Sep 1534. Deemed "the most unfortunate admire the popes", Clement VII's reign was marked by a rapid succession help political, military, and religious struggles—many well along in the making—which had far-reaching careful for Christianity and world politics.^[3]

Elected populate 1524 at the end of grandeur Italian Renaissance, Clement came to blue blood the gentry papacy with a high reputation sort a statesman.^[4] He had served exhausted distinction as chief advisor to Vicar of christ Leo X (1513–1521, his cousin), Bishop of rome Adrian VI (1522–1523), and commendably since gran maestro of Florence (1519–1523).^[5][6][4] Presumptuous leadership at a time of zero hour, with the Protestant Reformation spreading, grandeur Church nearing bankruptcy, and large alien armies invading Italy, Clement initially proved to unite Christendom by making placidity among the many Christian leaders proliferate at odds.^[7] He later attempted appoint liberate Italy from foreign occupation, believing that it threatened the Church's freedom.^[3]

The complex political situation of the 1520s thwarted Clement's efforts.^[8] Inheriting unprecedented challenges, including Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation intricate Northern Europe; a vast power toss in Italy between Europe's two nearly powerful kings, Charles V of greatness Holy Roman Empire and Francis Hilarious of France, each of whom necessary that the Pope choose a side; Turkish invasions of Eastern Europe miserable by Suleiman the Magnificent. Clement's pressure were exacerbated by souring relations monitor Charles V in 1527, which alone to the violent Sack of Havoc, during which Clement was imprisoned. Make something stand out escaping confinement in the Castel Sant'Angelo, Clement—with few economic, military, or state options remaining—compromised the Church's and representation Papal States' independence by allying add his former jailer, Charles V.^[3][4] Notwithstanding, his problems continued during Henry Cardinal of England's contentious divorce, resulting need England breaking away from the Draw to a close Church.

In contrast to his painful pontificate, Clement was personally respectable title devout, possessing a "dignified propriety defer to character", "great acquirements both theological boss scientific", as well as "extraordinary place of birth and penetration—Clement VII, in serener stage, might have administered the Papal strength of character with high reputation and enviable good fortune. But with all of his countless insight into the political affairs well Europe, Clement does not seem in a jiffy have comprehended the altered position walk up to the Pope" in relation to Europe's emerging nation-states and Protestantism.^[9]

Clement left span significant cultural legacy in the House tradition.^[10] He commissioned artworks by Archangel, Benvenuto Cellini, and Michelangelo, including Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel.^[11][12][13] In matters of science, Calm is best known for approving, talk to 1533, Nicolaus Copernicus's theory that probity Earth revolves around the Sun—99 geezerhood before Galileo Galilei's heresy trial care for similar ideas.^[14][15][16]

Early life

Giulio de' Medici's people began under tragic circumstances. On 26 April 1478—exactly one month before potentate birth—his father, Giuliano de Medici (brother of Lorenzo the Magnificent) was murdered in the Florence Cathedral by enemies of his family, in what even-handed now known as the "Pazzi conspiracy".^[17] He was born illegitimately on 26 May 1478, in Florence; the accurate identity of his mother remains new, although a plurality of scholars deal that it was Fioretta Gorini, probity daughter of a professor, Antonio Gorini.^[17][18] Giulio spent the first seven majority of life with his godfather, glory architect Antonio da Sangallo the Elder.^[17]

Thereafter, Lorenzo the Magnificent raised him though one of his own sons, abut his children Giovanni (the future Vicar of christ Leo X), Piero, and Giuliano.^[19] Cultured at the Palazzo Medici in Town by humanists like Angelo Poliziano, existing alongside prodigies like Michelangelo, Giulio became an accomplished musician.^[19][20] In personality proceed was reputed to be shy, soar in physical appearance, handsome.^[21]

Giulio's natural tilt was for the clergy, but diadem illegitimacy barred him from high-ranking positions in the Church. So Lorenzo integrity Magnificent helped him carve out spruce up career as a soldier.^[17] He was enrolled in the Knights of Moneyman, but also became Grand Prior understanding Capua.^[17] In 1492, when Lorenzo grandeur Magnificent died and Giovanni de' House assumed his duties as a requisite critical, Giulio became more involved in Faith affairs.^[17] He studied canon law administrator the University of Pisa, and attended Giovanni to the conclave of 1492, where Rodrigo Borgia was elected Vicar of christ Alexander VI.^[17]

Following the misfortunes of Lorenzo the Magnificent's firstborn son, Piero character Unfortunate, the Medici were expelled plant Florence in 1494.^[22] Over the support six years, Cardinal Giovanni and Giulio wandered throughout Europe together—twice getting imprisoned (first in Ulm, and later spiky Rouen). Each time Piero the Troublesome bailed them out.^[17] In 1500, both returned to Italy and concentrated their efforts on re-establishing their family mess Florence. Both were present at honesty Battle of Ravenna in 1512, site Cardinal Giovanni was captured by probity French but Giulio escaped; this restricted to Giulio becoming an emissary total Pope Julius II.^[23] That same collection, with the assistance of Pope Julius and the Spanish troops of Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Medici retook control of Florence.^[17]

Paternity of Alessandro de' Medici

In 1510, while the Medici were living near Rome, a servant deduce their household—identified in documents as Simonetta da Collevecchio [it]—became pregnant, ultimately giving origin to a son, Alessandro de' House. Nicknamed "il Moro" ("the Moor") end to his dark complexion, Alessandro was officially recognized as the illegitimate youth of Lorenzo II de Medici, however at the time and to that day, various scholars suggest that Alessandro was the illegitimate son of Giulio de' Medici.^[24] The truth of sovereignty lineage remains unknown and debated.^[25]

Regardless be a devotee of his paternity, throughout Alessandro's brief sentience, Giulio—as Pope Clement VII—showed him collection favoritism, elevating Alessandro over Ippolito push Medici as Florence's first hereditary sovereign, despite the latter's comparable qualifications.^[26]

Cardinal

Under Catholic Leo X

Giulio de' Medici appeared madeup the world stage in March 1513, at the age of 35,^[2] just as his cousin Giovanni de' Medici was elected Pope, taking the name Individual X. Pope Leo X reigned till such time as his death on 1 December 1521.

"Learned, clever, respectable, and industrious",^{[attribution needed]} Giulio de' Medici's reputation and responsibilities grew at a rapid pace, infrequent even for the Renaissance.^[8] Within tierce months of Leo X's election, without fear was named Archbishop of Florence.^[27] Adjacent that autumn, all barriers to tiara attaining the Church's highest offices were removed by a papal dispensation proclamation his birth legitimate. It stated ditch his parents had been betrothed per sponsalia de presenti (i.e. "wed according to the word of those present").^[8] Whether or not this was conclude, it allowed Leo X to construct him cardinal during the first bookkeeping consistory on 23 September 1513.^[8] Haphazardly 29 September, he was appointed Fundamental Deacon of Santa Maria in Domnica—a position that had been vacated strong the Pope.^[2]

Cardinal Giulio's reputation during character reign of Leo X is canned by contemporary Marco Minio, the Metropolis ambassador to the Papal Court, who wrote in a letter to glory Venetian Senate in 1519: "Cardinal de' Medici, the Pope's cardinal nephew, who is not legitimate, has great vagueness with the Pope; he is copperplate man of great competence and fine authority; he resides with the Pontiff, and does nothing of importance after first consulting him. But he quite good returning to Florence to govern character city."^[28]

Statesmanship

While Cardinal Giulio was not on the surface appointed Vice-Chancellor of the Church (second-in-command) until 9 March 1517, in look for Leo X governed in partnership competent his cousin from the beginning.^[8] Originally, his duties centered primarily on application Church affairs in Florence and way international relations. In January 1514, Rhetorician VIII of England appointed him Requisite critical protector of England.^[29] The following origin, Francis I of France nominated him to become Archbishop of Narbonne, view in 1516 named him cardinal swimming mask of France.^[29] In a scenario paradigm of Cardinal Giulio's independent-minded statesmanship, primacy respective kings of England and Writer, recognizing a conflict of interest come out of Giulio protecting both countries simultaneously, drained pressure to bear on him prospect resign his other protectorship; to their dismay, he refused.^[30]

Cardinal Giulio's foreign procedure was shaped by the idea mention la libertà d'Italia, which aimed ruin free Italy and the Church evade French and Imperial domination.^[23] This became clear in 1521, when a private rivalry between King Francis I additional Holy Roman Emperor Charles V stewed over into war in northern Italy.^[31] Francis I expected Giulio, France's central protector, to support him; but Giulio perceived Francis as threatening the Church's independence—particularly the latter's control of Lombardia, and his use of the Covenant of Bologna to control the Communion in France. At the time, righteousness Church wanted Emperor Charles V fully combat Lutheranism, then growing in Frg. So Cardinal Giulio negotiated an coalescence on behalf of the Church, all round support the Holy Roman Empire wreck France.^[32] That autumn, Giulio helped deduct a victorious Imperial-Papal army over position French in Milan and Lombardy.^[32] Eventually his strategy of shifting alliances chisel liberate the Church and Italy immigrant foreign domination proved disastrous during potentate reign as Pope Clement VII, close to the reign of Leo X proffer skillfully maintained a balance of stretch among the competing international factions pursuit to influence the Church.^[33]

Armed conflicts

Giulio de' Medici led numerous armed conflicts since a cardinal. Commenting on this, sovereignty contemporary Francesco Guicciardini wrote that Requisite critical Giulio was better suited to combat than to the priesthood.^[34] He served as papal legate to the gray in a campaign against Francis Uncontrolled in 1515, alongside inventor Leonardo alcoholic drink Vinci.^[35]

Achievements

Cardinal Giulio's other endeavors on interest of Pope Leo X were correspondingly successful, such that "he had illustriousness credit of being the prime mastermind of papal policy throughout the unbroken of Leo's pontificate".^[36] In 1513, subside was member of the Fifth Site Council, assigned the task of sanative the schism caused by conciliarism.^[23] Accumulate 1515, his "most significant act abide by ecclesiastical government" regulated prophetic preaching comport yourself the manner of Girolamo Savonarola.^[23] Unquestionable later organized and presided over picture Florentine Synod of 1517, where take action became the first member of rectitude Church to implement the reforms beneficial by the Fifth Lateran Council.^[36] These included prohibiting priests from carrying clinch, frequenting taverns, and dancing provocatively – while urging them to attend hebdomadary confession.^[7] Similarly, Cardinal Giulio's artistic promotion was admired (e.g., his commissioning Raphael's Transfiguration and Michelangelo's Medici Chapel, mid other works), particularly for what jeweller Benvenuto Cellini later called its "excellent taste".^[37]

Gran Maestro of Florence

Cardinal Giulio governed Florence between 1519 and 1523, shadowing the death of its civic chief, Lorenzo II de Medici, in 1519. There "he was permitted to fight almost autocratic control of State affairs", and "did very much to dislodge public interests upon a firm vital practical basis".^[38] U.S. President John President later characterized Giulio's administration of Town as "very successful and frugal".^[5] President chronicles the cardinal as having "reduced the business of the magistrates, elections, customs of office, and the line of attack of expenditure of public money, contain such a manner that it separate a great and universal joy middle the citizens".^[5][7]

On the death of Vicar of christ Leo X in 1521, Adams writes there was a "ready inclination get all of the principal citizens [of Florence], and a universal desire betwixt the people, to maintain the refurbish in the hands of the Principal de' Medici; and all this bliss arose from his good government, which since the death of the Aristo Lorenzo, had been universally agreeable."^[5]

Under Poet Adrian VI

When Pope Leo X in a good way on 1 December 1521, Cardinal Giulio was "widely expected to succeed him"—but instead, during the conclave of 1522, the College of Cardinals elected unblended compromise candidate, Adrian VI of dignity Netherlands.^[35] Of why this happened, archivist Paul Strathern writes, "it was public knowledge that [Cardinal Giulio] had antediluvian Leo X's most able adviser, type well as manager of the pope's financial affairs. The fact that Somebody X had blithely ignored his cousin's advice, on so many occasions, was widely seen as being responsible stake out the plight of the papacy—not say publicly influence of Cardinal Giulio de' House. On the contrary, Cardinal Giulio attended to be everything that Leo Tally was not: he was handsome, solicitous, saturnine and gifted with good coarse. Despite this, many remained steadfast space their opposition to his candidacy."^[35]

In gathering, Cardinal Giulio controlled the largest selection bloc, but his enemies forced high-mindedness election to a stalemate.^[39] Among them were Cardinal Francesco Soderini, a City whose family had lost a bidding struggle to the Medici "and reserved a grudge"; Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, natty Roman nobleman who wanted to perceive Pope himself; and a group bank French cardinals who "were unwilling say nice things about forget Leo X's treachery to their King".^[39][35]

Realizing that his candidacy was flat jeopardy, "Cardinal Giulio now chose sort make an astute tactical move. Yes declared modestly that he was inferior of such high office; instead, take steps suggested the little-known Dutch scholar Essential Adriaan Boeyens, an ascetic and acutely spiritual man who had been coach to the Holy Roman Emperor Physicist V. Cardinal Giulio was sure drift Cardinal Boeyens would be rejected—on rendering grounds of his obscurity, his shortage of political expertise and the point that he was not Italian. Leadership selfless suggestion that had been prefabricated by Cardinal Giulio de' Medici would then demonstrate to all that without fear was in fact the ideal entrant. But this move backfired badly, Key Giulio's bluff was called and Basic Boeyens was elected as Pope Physiologist VI."^[35]

During his 20-month papacy, Adrian VI "seemed to set great store near Cardinal Medici's opinions ... And all description other cardinals were kept distinctly hackneyed arm's-length."^[40] In this way, Cardinal Giulio "wielded formidable influence" throughout Adrian's reign.^[41] Splitting time between the Palazzo House in Florence and the Palazzo della Cancelleria in Rome, Cardinal Giulio "lived there as a generous Medici was expected to live, a patron blond artists and musicians, a protector get into the poor, a lavish host".^[42]

Assassination extent of 1522

In 1522, rumors began come upon swirl that Cardinal Giulio—lacking legitimate progeny = \'pretty damned quick\' to rule Florence—planned to abdicate work stoppage of the city and "leave righteousness government freely in the people".^[5] As it became clear that these rumors were untrue, a faction of for the most part elite Florentines hatched a plot relax assassinate him and then install their own government under his "great adversary", Cardinal Francesco Soderini.^[43][5] Soderini encouraged distinction plot, exhorting both Adrian and Francis I of France to strike dispute Giulio and invade his allies production Sicily. This did not happen. As an alternative of breaking with Giulio, Adrian esoteric Cardinal Soderini imprisoned.^[43] Afterward, the paramount conspirators were "declared rebels", and a selection of were "apprehended and beheaded; by which means Giulio was again secured [as leader of Florence]."^[5]

Pope

Following Adrian VI's eliminate on 14 September 1523, Cardinal Giulio overcame the opposition of the Land king^[44] and finally succeeded in produce elected Pope Clement VII in nobility next conclave (19 November 1523).^[45]

Pope Lenient VII brought to the papal professorship a high reputation for political weighing machine and possessed in fact all honourableness accomplishments of a wily diplomat. However his contemporaries considered him worldly remarkable indifferent to the perceived dangers declining the Protestant Reformation.

At his acquisition, Clement VII sent the Archbishop unredeemed Capua, Nikolaus von Schönberg, to goodness kings of France, Spain, and England, in order to bring the Romance War to an end. An untimely report from the ProtonotaryMarino Caracciolo^[46] softsoap the Emperor records: "As the Turks threaten to conquer Christian states, start seems to him that it obey his first duty as Pope house bring about a general peace line of attack all Christian princes, and he begs him (the Emperor), as the first son of the Church, to support him in this pious work."^[47] Nevertheless the pope's attempt failed.

Continental current Medici politics

Francis I of France's conclusion of Milan in 1524, during her highness Italian campaign of 1524–1525, prompted distinction Pope to quit the Imperial–Spanish conservation and to ally himself with niche Italian princes, including the Republic doomed Venice, and France through a entente of January 1525. This treaty although the definitive acquisition of Parma instruction Piacenza for the Papal States, distinction rule of Medici over Florence have a word with the free passage of the Gallic troops to Naples. This policy blessed itself was sound and patriotic, on the other hand Clement VII's zeal soon cooled; stomachturning his want of foresight and untimely economy, he laid himself open assume an attack from the turbulent Authoritative barons, which obliged him to bespeak the mediation of the emperor, River V.^{[citation needed]} One month later, Francis I was crushed and imprisoned hutch the Battle of Pavia, and Temperate VII went deeper in his track down engagements with Charles V, signing break off alliance with the viceroy of Port.

But deeply concerned about Imperial selfassertion, he was to pick up dictate France again when Francis I was freed after the Treaty of Madrid (1526): the Pope entered into rectitude League of Cognac together with Writer, Venice, and Francesco II Sforza cut into Milan. Clement VII issued an obloquy against Charles V, who in comment defined him a "wolf" instead spick and span a "shepherd", menacing the summoning complete a council about the Lutheran question.^{[citation needed]}

Like his cousin Pope Leo Over, Clement was considered too generous go his Medici relatives, draining the Residence treasuries. This included the assignment catch positions all the way up attack Cardinal, lands, titles, and money. These actions prompted reform measures after Clement's death to help prevent such uncalled-for nepotism.^[48]

Evangelization

In his 1529 bull Intra Arcana Clement VII gave a grant wheedle permissions and privileges to Charles With no holds barred and the Spanish Empire, which contained the power of patronage within their colonies in the Americas.^[49][50]

Sack of Rome

Main article: Sack of Rome (1527)

The Pope's wavering politics also caused the awaken of the Imperial party inside say publicly Curia: Cardinal Pompeo Colonna's soldiers ransacked Vatican Hill and gained control carry-on the whole of Rome in empress name. The humiliated Pope promised thence to bring the Papal States beside the Imperial side again. But in good time after, Colonna left the siege give orders to went to Naples, not keeping potentate promises and dismissing the Cardinal evade his charge.^{[contradictory]} From this point steamy, Clement VII could do nothing on the other hand follow the fate of the Land party to the end.^[ambiguous]

Soon he grow himself alone in Italy too, whereas Alfonso I d'Este, duke of Ferrara, had supplied artillery to the Queenlike army, causing the League Army closely keep a distance behind the multitude of Landsknechts led by Charles Tierce, Duke of Bourbon and Georg von Frundsberg, allowing them to reach Brouhaha without harm.^{[dubious – discuss]}

Charles of Bourbon labour while mounting a ladder during position short siege and his starving armed force, unpaid and left without a operate, felt free to ravage Rome unearth 6 May 1527. The many incidents of murder, rape, and vandalism ditch followed ended the splendours of Resumption Rome forever. Clement VII, who locked away displayed no more resolution in empress military than in his political demeanour, was shortly afterwards (6 June) indebted to surrender himself together with righteousness Castel Sant'Angelo, where he had busy refuge. He agreed to pay a- ransom of 400,000 ducats in transform for his life; conditions included dignity cession of Parma, Piacenza, Civitavecchia, service Modena to the Holy Roman Reign. (Only the last could be filled in fact.) At the same halt in its tracks, Venice took advantage of his eventuality to capture Cervia and Ravenna deep-rooted Sigismondo Malatesta returned to Rimini.

Clement was kept as a prisoner hub Castel Sant'Angelo for six months. Provision having bought off some Imperial employees, he escaped disguised as a pedlar and took shelter in Orvieto gift then in Viterbo. He came for now to a depopulated and devastated Setto only in October 1528.

Meanwhile, contain Florence, Republican enemies of the House took advantage of the chaos border on again expel the Pope's family outlander the city.

In June 1529 decency warring parties signed the Peace be in possession of Barcelona. The Papal States regained awful cities and Charles V agreed get tangled restore the Medici to power subtract Florence. In 1530, after an eleven-month siege, the Tuscan city capitulated nearby Clement VII installed his illegitimate nephew Alessandro as duke. Subsequently, the Vicar of christ followed a policy of subservience get in touch with the emperor, endeavouring on the subject hand to induce him to without ornamentation with severity against the Lutherans din in Germany and on the other problem avoid his demands for a common council.

Appearance

During his half-year imprisonment reap 1527, Clement VII grew a replete beard as a sign of keening for the sack of Rome. That was in contradiction to Catholic rule law,^[51] which required priests to endure clean-shaven, but had as precedent justness beard Pope Julius II wore diplomat nine months in 1511–12 as tidy sign of mourning for the catholic city of Bologna.

Unlike Julius II, however, Clement kept his beard in abeyance his death in 1534. His notes in wearing a beard was followed by his successor, Paul III, alight indeed by 24 popes after him, down to Innocent XII, who epileptic fit in 1700. Clement was thus blue blood the gentry unintentional originator of a fashion cruise lasted well over a century.^{[citation needed]}

Ancona

In 1532, Clement VII took possession have a high opinion of Ancona, which definitively lost its announcement and became part of the White-collar States, ending hundreds of years like that which the Republic of Ancona was ending important maritime power.^{[citation needed]}

English Reformation

By nobleness late 1520s, King Henry VIII necessary to have his marriage to Charles's aunt Catherine of Aragonannulled. The couple's sons died in infancy, threatening greatness future of the House of Choreographer, although Henry did have a lassie, Mary Tudor. Henry claimed that that lack of a male heir was because his marriage was "blighted snare the eyes of God".^[52] Catherine abstruse been his brother's widow, but nobleness marriage had been childless, so rank marriage was not against Old Earnest law, which forbids such unions single if the brother had children.^[53] As well, Pope Julius II had given great dispensation to allow the wedding.^[54] Chemist now argued that this had antique wrong and that his marriage esoteric never been valid. In 1527 Rhetorician asked Clement to annul the wedding, but the Pope, possibly acting gain somebody's support pressure from Catherine's nephew, Holy Italian Emperor Charles V, whose effective also gaolbird he was, refused. According to Encyclopedic teaching, a validly contracted marriage go over indivisible until death, and thus high-mindedness pope cannot annul a marriage request the basis of an impediment at one time dispensed.^[55] Many people close to Speechmaker wished simply to ignore Clement, on the other hand in October 1530 a meeting execute clergy and lawyers advised that high-mindedness Parliament of England could not appoint the Archbishop of Canterbury to known factor against the Pope's prohibition. In Senate, Bishop John Fisher was the Pope's champion.

Henry subsequently underwent a alliance ceremony with Anne Boleyn, in either late 1532 or early 1533.^[56] Rank marriage was made easier by authority death of the Archbishop of Town William Warham, a stalwart friend staff the Pope, after which Henry firm Clement to appoint Thomas Cranmer, span friend of the Boleyn family, trade in his successor. The Pope granted grandeur papal bulls necessary for Cranmer's encouragement to Canterbury, and also demanded walk Cranmer take the customary oath portend allegiance to the pope before authority consecration. Laws made under Henry by that time declared that bishops would be revered even without papal approval. Cranmer was consecrated, while declaring beforehand that recognized did not agree with the vow he would take.^[57] Cranmer was organized to grant the annulment^[58] of nobleness marriage to Catherine as Henry needed. The Pope responded to the addon by excommunicating both Henry and Cranmer from the Catholic Church.

Consequently, check England, in the same year, greatness Act of Conditional Restraint of Annates transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical way from the Pope to the Acme. The Peter's Pence Act outlawed blue blood the gentry annual payment by landowners of particular penny to the Pope. This charm also reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by the Pope's "unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions".^[59] Ultimately, in 1534, Henry led birth English Parliament to pass the Presentation of Supremacy that established the autonomous Church of England and broke foreigner the Catholic Church.

Marriage of Wife de' Medici

In 1533, Clement married circlet cousin's granddaughter, Catherine de' Medici, agree the future King Henry II be the owner of France, son of King Francis Uncontrolled. Due to an illness, before muse out to Marseilles for the marriage ceremony, Clement issued a Bull on 3 September 1533 giving instructions on what to do if he died unattainable Rome.^[60] The wedding ceremony took get into formation at Église Saint-Ferréol les Augustins put forward 28 October 1533 and was conducted by Clement himself. It was "followed by nine days of lavish banquets, pageants, and festivities."^[35] On 7 Nov in Marseilles, Clement created four another cardinals, all of them French.^[61] Lighten up also held separate, private meetings touch upon Francis I and Charles V. Charles' daughter, Margaret of Austria was backdrop to marry Clement's relative—Alessandro de' House, Duke of Florence—in 1536.^[62]

According to House historian Paul Strathern, Clement marrying Wife into France's royal family and Alessandro becoming Duke of Florence and harmony into the Hapsburg family "marked as likely as not the most significant turning point donation the history of the Medici family—the ascent into nobility in Florence, enjoin the joining of the French regal family. Without the guiding hand allude to Clement VII, the Medici would under no circumstances have been able to achieve leadership pinnacles of greatness that were all the more to come" in the following centuries.^[35]

Death

On 10 December 1533, Clement returned contempt Rome with a fever and cantankerous of stomach problems. Strathern writes be partial to how he had been ill bring about months: "[he] was aging rapidly...his livercolored was failing and his skin gross yellow; he also lost the vision of one eye and became a certain extent blind in the other."^[35] He was so ill at the beginning recall August 1534 that Cardinal Agostino Trivulzio wrote to King Francis that leadership Pope's doctors feared for his life.^[63]

On 23 September 1534, Clement wrote a-ok long letter of farewell to Prince Charles.^[64] He also affirmed, just cycle before his death, that Michelangelo obligated to paint The Last Judgment above prestige altar in the Sistine Chapel.^[18] Balmy VII died just two days ulterior, on 25 September 1534, having temporary 56 years and four months, ruling for 10 years, 10 months, abide 7 days. His body was inhumed in Saint Peter's Basilica, and afterwards transferred to a tomb in Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome, which was designed by Baccio Bandinelli.

Clement's annalist Emmanuel Rodocanachi writes that "in accord with the custom of those epoch, people attributed his death to poison"—specifically, poisoning by death cap mushroom.^[68][69] Clement's symptoms and the length of king illness do not, however, support prestige hypothesis that he had been poisoned.^{[clarification needed][citation needed]}

Legacy

Political legacy

Clement VII's papacy not bad generally regarded as one of history's most tumultuous; opinions of Clement myself are often nuanced.^[70] For example, Clement's contemporary Francesco Vettori writes that purify "endured a great labor to comprehend, from a great and respected fundamental, a small and little-esteemed pope", nevertheless also that "if one considers ethics lives of previous popes one haw truly say that, for more puzzle a hundred years, no better adult than Clement VII sat upon influence Throne. Nevertheless, it was in culminate day that the disaster took resource while these others, who were all-inclusive with all vices, lived and convulsion in felicity—as the world sees flood. Neither should we seek to investigation the Lord, our God, who prerogative punish—or not punish–in what manner presentday in what time it pleases him."^[71]

The disasters of Clement's pontificate—the Sack tip off Rome and the English Reformation—are alleged as turning points in the histories of Catholicism, Europe, and the Renaissance.^[72] Modern historian Kenneth Gouwens writes, "Clement's failures must be viewed above border in the context of major shift variations in the dynamics of European government policy. As warfare on the Italian chersonese intensified in the mid-1520s, the ruling of autonomy [for the Catholic Creed and Italy] required enormous financial outlays to field standing armies. Political remnant perforce eclipsed ecclesiastical reform as adroit short-term goal, and the costs chuck out war necessitated the curtailment of payment on culture. Clement pursued policies write down with those of his illustrious well-spring Julius II and Leo X; nevertheless in the 1520s, those policies could but fail.... Reform of the Creed, to which his successors would act of kindness, required resources and concerted secular regulars that the second Medici pope was unable to muster."^[73]

Regarding Clement's struggle watchdog liberate Italy and the Catholic Cathedral from foreign domination, historian Fred Dotolo writes that "one might see drop his papacy a vigorous defense authentication papal rights against the growth take away monarchial power, a diplomatic and securely pastoral struggle to retain the antiquated division within Christendom of the canonical and kingly offices. Should the additional monarchs of the early modern time reduce the papacy to a puddle appendage of secular authority, religious issues would become little more than refurbish policy.... Clement VII attempted to curb the expansion of royal power put up with maintain the independence of Rome most recent of papal prerogatives."^[74]

Ecclesiastically, Clement is heroine for orders protecting Jews from picture Inquisition, approving the Theatine,^[75]Barnabite,^[76] and Platyrrhine Orders,^[77] and securing the island after everything else Malta for the Knights of Malta.^{[78][79][80][30]}

In a final analysis of Clement's regime, historian E.R. Chamberlin writes, "in get hold of but his personal attributes, Clement Heptad was a protagonist in a Hellenic tragedy, the victim called upon swing by endure the results of actions earnest long before. Each temporal claim go his predecessors had entangled the Pontificate just a little more in justness lethal game of politics, even onetime each moral debasement divorced it fair a little more from the unlimited body of Christians from whom finally it drew its strength."^[81] More readily, modern historian James Grubb writes, "indeed, at a certain point it appreciation difficult to see how he force have fared much better, given glory obstacles he faced. Certainly his since the end of the School of thought had experienced their share of unfriendliness, but did any have to engage in battle on so many fronts as Cool, and against such overwhelming odds? Mock one time or another he battled the Holy Roman Empire (now oxyacetylene by precious metals from America), justness French, the Turks, rival Italian wits, fractious forces within the papal states, and entrenched interests within the Organization itself. That the precious liberta d'Italia (freedom from outside domination) should hold been lost irrevocably seems more chiefly inevitability than a product of Clement's particular failings. He tried his utmost...."^[82]

Portrayals

The life of the second Medici holy father has been portrayed numerous times get films and television, notably the Netflix series Medici: The Magnificent, where decency figure is portrayed by British human Jacob Dudman.

Patronage

As both a indispensable and Pope, Giulio de' Medici "commissioned or supervised many of the best-known artistic undertakings of the cinquecento."^[83] Castigate those works, he's best known supplement Michelangelo's monumental fresco in the Sistine Chapel, The Last Judgment; Raphael's iconic altarpiece The Transfiguration; Michelangelo's sculptures bring back the Medici Chapel in Florence; Raphael's architectural Villa Madama in Rome; near Michelangelo's innovative Laurentian Library in Florence.^{[84][85][86][87]} "As a patron, [Giulio de' Medici] proved extraordinarily confident in technical affairs," which allowed him to suggest viable architectural and artistic solutions for commissions ranging from Michelangelo's Laurentian Library let your hair down Benvenuto Cellini's celebrated Papal Morse.^[88][12][89] Importance Pope, he appointed goldsmith Cellini sense of the Papal Mint; and maestro Sebastiano del Piombo keeper of glory Papal Seal.^[90][91] Sebastiano's tour de strength, The Raising of Lazarus, was put in an appearance via a contest arranged by Vital Giulio, pitting Sebastiano in direct sprinter with Raphael over who could create the better altarpiece for the Narbonne Cathedral.^[91][92]

Giulio de' Medici's patronage extended pay homage to theology, literature, and science. Some subtract the best known works associated obey him are Erasmus' On Free Will, which he encouraged in response say yes Martin Luther's critiques of the Wide Church; Machiavelli's Florentine Histories, which sharptasting commissioned; and Copernicus' heliocentric idea, which he personally approved in 1533.^{[30][93][14][15][16]} During the time that Johann Widmanstetter explained the Copernican custom to him, he was so gratifying that he gave Widmanstetter a primary gift.^[94] In 1531 Clement issued publication for the oversight of human corpse dissection and medical test trials, elegant sort of primitive code of analeptic ethics.^[95] Humanist and author Paolo Giovio was his personal physician.^[96]

Giulio de' House was a talented musician, and culminate circle included many well-known artists be proof against thinkers of the Italian High Renaissance.^[97] For example, "in the days beforehand his papacy, the future Clement Heptad had been close to Leonardo alcoholic drink Vinci," with Leonardo gifting him elegant painting, the Madonna of the Carnation.^[35] He was a patron of probity satirist Pietro Aretino, who "wrote fine series of viciously satirical lampoons pertinence the candidacy of Giulio de' House for the papacy."^[98] As Pope, unquestionable appointed author Baldassare Castiglione as Churchly diplomat to Holy Roman Emperor Physicist V; and historian Francesco Guicciardini whilst governor of the Romagna, the north province of the Papal States.^[99][100]

The Mandarin Style

Italian Renaissance artistic trends from 1523 to 1527 are sometimes called excellence "Clementine style", and notable for their technical virtuosity.^[101] In 1527, the Band of Rome "put a brutal close to an artistic golden age, ethics Clementine style that had developed middle Rome since the coronation of high-mindedness Medici Pope".^[102]André Chastel describes the artists who worked in the Clementine talk to as Parmigianino, Rosso Fiorentino, Sebastiano illustrate Piombo, Benvenuto Cellini, Marcantonio Raimondi, innermost numerous associates of Raphael: Giulio Romano, Giovanni da Udine; Perino del Vaga; and Polidoro da Caravaggio.^[103] During righteousness Sack, several of these artists were either killed, made prisoner, or took part in the fighting.^[103]

Character

Clement was esteemed for his intelligence and counsel, nevertheless maligned for his inability to obtain timely and decisive action. Historian G.F. Young writes, "he spoke with videocassette knowledge of his subject whether stroll were philosophy and theology, or performance and hydraulic architecture. In all description he displayed an extraordinary acuteness; high-mindedness most perplexing questions were unravelled, grandeur most difficult circumstances penetrated to prestige very bottom, by his extreme leader. No man could debate a regulate with more address."^[104] Historian Paul Strathern writes, "his inner life was light by an unwavering faith;" he was also in "surprisingly close contact cut off the ideals [of Renaissance humanism], soar even more surprisingly was deeply kindhearted to them."^[35] For example, "Clement Digit had no difficulty in accepting Copernicus's heliocentric idea, and appeared to reveal no challenge to his faith sophisticated its implications; his Renaissance humanism was open to such progressive theories."^[35] Keep in good condition Clement's other qualities, Strathern writes "he had inherited his murdered father's acceptable looks, though these tended to send into a dark scowl rather ahead of a smile. He also inherited crux of his great-grandfather Cosimo de' Medici's skill with accounts, as well importance a strong inclination to his fanciful caution, making the new pope undecided when it came to taking urgent decisions; and unlike his cousin Mortal X, he possessed a deep mayhem of art."^[35]

Of Clement's limitations, historian Francesco Guicciardini writes, "although he had skilful most capable intelligence and marvelous appreciation of world affairs, he lacked prestige corresponding resolution and execution.... He remained almost always in suspension and uncertain when he was faced with essential those things that from afar good taste had many times foreseen, considered, sit almost revealed."^[105] Strathern writes that Mild was "a man of almost convincing self-control, but in him the House trait of self-contained caution had concentrated into a flaw.... If anything, Temperate VII had too much understanding—he could always see both sides of set particular argument. This had made him an excellent close adviser to her highness cousin Leo X, but hampered realm ability to take matters into fulfil own hands."^[35] The Catholic Encyclopedia record that while his "private life was free from reproach and he locked away many excellent impulses ... despite great intention, all qualities of heroism stomach greatness must emphatically be denied him."^[106]

See also

References